ARTICLE - ABOUT THREE TYPES OF UNDERSTANDING MUSIC: WEST, EAST, RUSSIA

Klujev Alexander S.

Doctor Habil. in Philosophy, Full Professor,

Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia;

Leading Researcher, Russian Institute for the History of the Arts

(Saint Petersburg, Russia)

E-mail: aklujev@mail.ru

ABOUT THREE TYPES OF UNDERSTANDING MUSIC:

WEST, EAST, RUSSIA

Abstract

The article discusses three types of understanding music, taking into account its existence on two levels: cosmic and actual. It is noted that the first type of understanding is offered by the West, the second by the East, and the third by Russia.

It is argued that according to the Western interpretation music is, in the ultimate sense, is non-sounding (silence), according to the Eastern interpretation, it is the sound of nature and according to the Russian interpretation, it is prayer.

In conclusion, it is stated that these three interpretations of music represent three possible paths to understanding its essence.

Keywords: music, understanding of music, West, East, Russia.

Preamble

For a long time, music has been perceived by people on two levels: the intelligible – cosmic, and the real – actual. But what is music that exists on these two levels, and what is it? We believe that there are three approaches to understanding music. The first is offered by the West, the second by the East, and the third by Russia. Let's explore them.

West

In the West, in the perception of music, its cosmic level dominates over the real, actual, i.e. the cosmic predetermines the existence of the real musical sound. This understanding was formed in Ancient Greece, in the teachings of Pythagoras (6th century BC) about the sounding cosmos – the harmony of the spheres (Greek: ἁρμονία ἐν κόσμῳ).

According to Pythagoras, who passed this knowledge on to his Pythagorean students, the cosmos is a sound, and this sound is caused by the rapid movement of the planets. Each rapidly moving planet produces a specific sound. The relationship between these sounds (in terms of their pitch) is mathematically precise, corresponding to the distances between the planets that produce them. According to the Neoplatonic philosopher Iamblichus (3rd – 4th century) in his famous book “On the Life of Pythagoras” (“The Life of Pythagoras”), Pythagoras believed that the planets “emit a song... rich and full-sounding (due to their movement)... and this movement is composed of their different and diverse noises, speeds, sizes, and constellations, which are arranged in a certain... proportion” [12, p. 52].

Pythagoras believed that this pattern was the basis of music. According to Iamblichus, Pythagoras came to this conclusion after passing by a blacksmith's shop. “As he was walking by, he heard the sound of iron being forged on an anvil, and the simultaneous strikes of the hammers produced a very harmonious sound. He discerned in them... consonances... Rejoicing (at his discovery. – A.K.), he ran into the forge and, by trial and error, discovered that the sound depended on the weight of the hammer, rather than on the force of the blow, the shape of the hammer, or the position of the iron being forged” [12, p. 78] (1).

Pythagoras's idea of the dominance of cosmic music over real, actual music is further developed by Boethius (5th – 6th centuries).

In his treatise “The Elements of Music”, Boethius establishes that cosmic music, which he refers to as mundane, predetermines the existence of real music, which he calls instrumentalis. Boethius writes, “the music called mundane is most evident in the phenomena observed in the sky itself, in the unity of the [four] elements, and in the diversity of the seasons. And how is it possible for such a fast-moving heaven to move silently?” [2, p. 11]. “The order in music is inseparable from this celestial rotation” [2, p. 13] (2).

Further, the idea under consideration was developed by Regino of Prüm (9th – 10th centuries). In his treatise “On the Study of Harmony”, Regino refers to cosmic and actual music as natural and artificial, respectively, and writes that natural music “is not produced by any musical instrument, any touch of the fingers, blow, or stroke, but (is inspired by. – A.K.) by divine command” [34, p. 190], while artificial music “is invented… by the human mind and… is performed through the use of instruments”. “The power of natural music cannot be known except through artificial music” [34, p. 193].

The idea of the influence of cosmic music on actual music continued to develop in the West in the 15th and 16th centuries.

In the 15th century, this idea was developed by Adam of Fulda. In his work “On Music”, based on the ideas of Regino of Prüm, Adam notes that cosmic, or world, music belongs to the natural realm, while actual, or instrumental, music belongs to the artificial realm. He states, “there are two types of music: natural and artificial. Natural music is the sound of celestial bodies, arising from the movement of the spheres, where there is believed to be the most harmony. This kind of music is handled by mathematicians... artificial music is handled by musicians”. At the same time, as Adam believed, and this was his innovation, artificial music is divided into instrumental and vocal [34, p. 359].

In the 16th century, this topic was addressed by Josephfo Zarlino. In the first part of his work “The Establishment of Harmony”, he writes: “The extent to which music was glorified and revered as sacred is clearly evidenced by the writings of philosophers and especially Pythagoreans, since they believed that the world was created according to musical laws ...”. The Pythagoreans established that “the movement of (celestial bodies. – A.K.) is the reason (why. – A.K.) our soul ... awakens from songs and sounds, and they ... have a life-giving effect on its properties” [1, p. 603].

The idea of the influence of cosmic music on real, actual music became more prominent in the West in the 17th century. Johann Kepler played a significant role in its development.

In Kepler's reflections on this topic in Book V of his treatise “Harmony of the World”, there is a crucial point. Kepler argues that the cosmos governs music, and he supports this claim by suggesting that planets have human-like voices. He states: “Saturn and Jupiter in the sky have, in some way, the properties that nature has given, and custom has attributed to the bass, and we find the properties of the tenor on Mars, the properties of the alto on Earth and Venus, and the same properties as the treble on Mercury, if not in the equality of intervals, then certainly in proportionality...” [35, p. 185] (3).

The peculiar evolution of Western scientists' ideas about the primacy of cosmic music over actual music continued further. So, in the 19th century, it received a response from I. Ritter.

I. Ritter, in one of the notes of the collection, entitled “Fragments from the legacy of a young physicist”, notes that the planets “are in very harmonious relations with each other”, and we can say that. that “whole rhythmic-periodic systems, ‘whole concerts’... are resolved... at a higher level (merging. – A.K.) into one – a higher – tone”. According to Ritter, this is observed in human-created music, where “each of our tones is a system of tones” [31, p. 337].

The topic under consideration continues to develop in the West in the 20th and 21st centuries. This development takes place in two directions.

The first direction, which originates from philosophical judgments, can be found in the works of R. Steiner, A. von Lange, M. Talbot and others. Thus, in his book “The Essence of Music and the Experience of Tone in Man” (“Das Wesen des Musikalischen und das Tonerlebnis im Menschen”), R. Steiner expresses the idea that there are “ideal forces (whose constructive activity is the music of the spheres) that lie behind the material world”. They “operate in a way that is most fully embodied in music” [39, pp. 46-47] (4).

The second approach is based on the achievements of science. Its main representatives are J. Godwin and J. James. For example, J. Godwin writes that in our time, when “physicists have questioned the assumptions of their predecessors” (such as the interchangeability of mass and energy, time and space, and the influence of the subject on objective experimentation), “it is only natural that ‘speculative music’ should be revived” [8, p. 374]. And then there's the “revelation”: Godwin argues that we need to understand “music as a cosmos” [8, p. 373].

So, according to the Western model, the harmony of the spheres predetermines the existence of our real, actual music. But what's interesting is that the harmony of the spheres is not audible, it is speculative (or, more precisely, it is heard). This is how the later Pythagoreans described it: “We do not hear this sound... the reason for this is that this sound is present immediately upon birth, so that it is not distinguishable from the opposite [silence]. For the distinction between sound and silence is relative [and depends on their relationship] to each other. Thus, just as it seems to the coppersmiths, due to habit, that there is no difference [between silence and knocking when they work], so the same thing happens to [all] people [when perceiving the harmony of the spheres]” [23, pp. 357-358]. From this we can conclude that in the Western dimension, music is ultimately non-sounding, silent (let us recall the famous “summary” of the development of music in the West – 4’33” by John Cage) (5).

East

In the East, in the understanding of music, its actual, physical, level dominates over the cosmic. This position was established in all the states of the Ancient East and was embodied in the doctrine of sound.

Most clearly, this doctrine manifested itself in Ancient India in the concept of two types of sounds: manifested – physical (Ahata Nada) and unmanifested – cosmic (Anahata Nada) [9; 10].

According to the ancient Indians, the physical sound (Ahata Nada) leads to the cosmic sound (Anahata Nada). This is confirmed by the interpretation of the sound (syllable) Om / Aum (Sanskrit: ॐ) (6).

Om is a mysterious and sacred sound. When a person speaks Om, it merges with the sound of the universe [44, p. 77]. Om is constantly mentioned in the Upanishads, and its mysterious purpose is revealed in the Mandukya Upanishad. This sacred text says:

“[Om] Aum! This sound is all of it. Here is its explanation:

The past, the present, and the future are all the sound [Om] Aum.

And the other things beyond the three times are also the sound [Om] Aum” [27, p. 201] (7).

The creative power of Om is especially evident when it is pronounced not only as a separate sound, but also as an element that connects ritual actions that occur over time (8).

At a certain stage of historical development, the interpretation of a specific musical composition called raga (Sanskrit: राग) emerged as a vivid embodiment of the realization of the movement of music from its actual (physical) level to the cosmic level in India. It was believed that raga reaches a universal scale due to the sounds that form it, known as swaras (Sanskrit: स्वर).

Given the importance of the swaras, it is not surprising that a large number of theoretical works have been devoted to their discussion in India.

The most authoritative of these is the treatise “The Composition on the Music of Different Localities” (“Brihaddeshi”) by Matangi (7th century).

In this treatise, Matanga writes about swara as follows:

“This word (swara) is derived from the root ‘rājr’

(meaning ‘to shine’) and the prefix ‘swa’ (meaning ‘self’).

Thus, we refer to swara as something that shines on its own” [33, p. 120].

The scale of a raga consists of seven swaras: Sa (shadja [ṣaḍja]), Ri (rishabha), Ga (gadhara), Ma (madhyama) Pa (panchama), Dha (dhayvata) and Ni (nishada). The most important of these is the first: Sa (shadja) (9).

Fundamentally, in India, swara was not only the sound of a raga, but the sound in general. Here, for example, is what he writes in his treatise “The Nectar of Music” (“Sangitamakaranda”) Narada (8th century):

“[It is known that] the peacock cries in the shadja swara,

the chataka in the rishabha,

the goat makes the gadhara swara,

the curlew manhyama

and the cuckoo at the time of flowering

cuckoos in the swara panchama,

the horse neighs in the dhayvata

and the elephant trumpets in the swara nishada” [33, p. 107].

It is obvious that swara is the way to the cosmic sound: the sound of the world. This is confirmed by Indian scholars. Thus, the sage Bharata (1st century BC) in his treatise “The Composition on the Beauty of Music” (“Gitalankara”) notes: “[swaras] embrace the whole world” [33, p. 92]. In his work “Musical Grammar” (the original title of the work is unknown), Irayanar (4th century) writes: “In the space of the world and the worlds... there is (only) sound; it constructs the entire space of the universe...” [33, p. 101]. Finally, Sharnagadeva (13th century) states in his work “The Ocean of Music” (“Sangitaratnakara”): “The world is built on sound” [33, p. 118].

This interpretation of sound / swara has become stable and has survived to the present day [37; 41].

But what is this somewhat abstract concept of the sound world? Of course, it is the sound of nature.

Thus, based on this explanation, we can say that in India, music is essentially the sound of nature (10). Since the Indian interpretation of music is the quintessence of the Eastern attitude to music in general, we can say that in the East, music is essentially the sound of nature [42; 43] (11).

Russia

In Russia, in the interpretation of music, its levels: cosmic and actual merge. There is no dominant, they are one. And such an understanding is associated with angel-like singing.

Angel-like singing is the singing in the Orthodox church of parishioners together with angels, who by their singing constantly glorify God (12). In Russia, such singing was formed by the 15th century. It was znamennoe chant (Church Slavonic: znamꙗ) (13).

The most significant expression of angel-like singing is the Cherubic chant.

The Cherubic chant is a chant that is sung during the Liturgy. It serves as a preparation for the faithful to the Great Entrance.

In the Russian Church, this chant was established after the 15th century. Initially, it was a one-voice (monodic) chant characterized by a slow unfolding of extended melodic lines and a free, asymmetrical rhythm.

Since the 16th century, the Cherubic chant has been performed in three voices (three lines). It was recorded in lines, hence the name “line chant”.

The three-voice Cherubic chant is comparable to the polyphony that occurs when Russian lyrical long songs are performed. The combination of three voices created unique harmonic combinations similar to those found in Russian folk polyphony. The Cherubic chants of the 15th and 16th centuries were usually unattributed.

In the 17th century, an important event took place: the znamennoe chant was replaced by the partes chant (Latin: partes). Partes is a Western polyphonic chant that was introduced to Russia through Poland. As a result of this introduction, the znamennoe chants of the Cherubim in Russia acquired Western major-minor harmonization. The Cherubim also gained authorship. In the 17th century, V.P. Titov was a well-known composer of the Cherubim.

A special feature of the Cherubim Titovs was that the voices in them did not reunite or “befriend”, but rather represented, as N.P. Diletsky put it, “a struggle of voice with voice” [5, p. 66].

In the 18th century, when writing the Cherubic chants, they tried to bring the Western harmonization closer to the ancient chant. D.S. Bortnyansky achieved the greatest success in this regard. This was especially evident in his most famous Cherubic chant – Cherubic chant No 7. However, even in this chant, the Western style prevailed, proving that Bortnyansky was indeed “aligned with the Italian school of sacred music” [29].

It should be noted that as a result of the partes chant that was established in Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Cherubim that were created for the church turned out to be concert compositions rather than works that should be performed during worship [4]. Angel-like singing disappeared from them (14).

The decisive change in the composition of the Cherubim belongs to M.I. Glinka. This change can be described as a “turn to the origins”.

Glinka conceived the composition of the Cherubim (which is the only one in his oeuvre) in an effort to revive the original sacred music in the church. According to the composer's own admission, “[he] wanted to test his abilities in sacred music; he wrote the Cherubim...” [7, p. 77] (15).

In Cherubim, Glinka managed to recreate the image of liturgical singing as a language of communion with God. Angel-like singing “came to life” in it [22, p. 15].

Glinka's Cherubic chant became the starting point for the composition of Cherubic chants by Russian composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including P.I. Tchaikovsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, S.V. Rakhmaninov, A.D. Kastalsky, A.T. Grechaninov, P.G. Chesnokov, V.S. Kalinnikov and many others (16).

Perhaps the most openly followed Glinka A.D. Kastalsky. His Cherubim (first of all the Cherubim of the znamennoe chant) Kastalsky, focusing on Glinka, sought to transform “into something musically sublime, strong in its expressiveness and close to the Russian heart” [14, p. 60].

Castalsky's Cherubim became the true “Castalian Key” for Russian composers in the 20th and 21st centuries to write similar compositions: Metropolitan Hilarion (Alfeev), Archimandrite Nafanail (Bachkalo), Archimandrite Matthew, Fr. Sergius Trubachev, A.A. Tretyakov and others.

They found an exceptionally vivid manifestation in the Cherubim of Metropolitan Hilarion (Alfeev) (one of which was even written on the theme of J.S. Bach!).

The achievement of the Metropolitan's Cherubim was the expression of the unfathomable depths of the spirit. It is significant that, when commenting on the figurative structure of the Cherubim (its archetypal appearance), the composer cites a passage from the description of the mysterious vision of the prophet Ezekiel:

“‘The Cherubim stood on the right side of the house… and a cloud filled the inner court… And the noise of the wings of the Cherubim was heard even in the outer court, as the voice of God Almighty when He speaks. And the Cherubim had the appearance of hands under their wings. And I saw four wheels near the Cherubim, one wheel near each Cherubim, and the wheels looked like they were made of topaz stone. And all four looked similar, as if a wheel were inside a wheel. When they walked, they walked in four directions; they did not turn around during their march, but they went in the direction of their heads. And all their bodies, and their backs, and their arms, and their wings, and their wheels, were full of eyes…’ (Ezekiel 10:3, 5, 8-12)” [11, pp. 425-426] (17).

Thus, Glinka's Cherubic chant became the seed (“acorn”) of the development of Cherubim in Russia. It is important to emphasize that this development, in general, was expressed in the filling of Cherubim with angelic-like singing.

Indeed, the angelic-like singing in the Cherubim became more sublime and beautiful and finally reached its full power [24; 25] (18). This moment marked the birth of Russian music (19).

But what is Russian music, which has absorbed the angelic-like singing? It is a prayer. With this in mind, we can confidently say that in Russia, music, in its true form, is a prayer (20).

Conclusion

So, there are three models of music: Western, Eastern, and Russian. This means that there are three ways to understand the fundamental principles of music (I think the reader can guess which way the author of this article prefers). These paths are different. Is it possible for them to intersect? I believe it is possible, because these are the three paths of One Human Being, a Resident of the Earth...

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(1) This idea of Pythagoras has been substantiated in modern scientific research [19; 20].

(2) Boethius speaks about the existence of another level of music – the human one, caused by the mixing of the “disembodied liveliness of the mind with the body”. He calls this level humana. However, the humana level is associated with the mundane level. This was also noted in the Pythagorean school [12, pp. 51-56].

(3) For more information on Kepler's interpretation of the connection between cosmic music and real music, see, for example: [3].

(4) A. von Lange's statement is also expressive in its own way: “The entire spiritual organism of man, in which the depth of musical experience rests unconsciously, is formed from the cosmos through the harmony of the spheres” [21, p. 364].

(5) The philosophical justification of this position can be found in the works of P. Kivi. In particular, Kivi argues in one of his works that music is “devoid of semantics” and is a “quasi-syntactic structure” with no fixed meaning. He suggests that it is the inaudible aspects of music, such as its title or program, which are often not transformed into sound, that give it its significance [16]. The work has received a large number of laudatory reviews (https://philpapers.org/rec/KIVMAP).

(6) Om and Aum are one. The accents (matras) A, U, and M express the states of consciousness: A is awake, U is with sleep and dreams, and M is with deep sleep without dreams [26].

(7) See also: [40].

(8) “In every initial action... there is a ‘very first’ beginning; this beginning... is Om: this [sound] syllable begins (and ends) every chant, in fact, not only every chant, but also, apparently, every formula, hymn, etc... By means of a special pronunciation of this syllable, the ritual action was given the much-needed quality of ‘continuity’... Thus, all the pauses in the ritual could be filled with the syllable Om, and not only within the given rite, but also between one rite and the next, which could, in principle, take place at any time – in 2-3 hours, in 2 weeks, in a year…” That is, the sound of Om “was understood as something eternal” [38, p. 121].

(9) Its significance is emphasized by the fact that it is played by the tambura (a musical instrument used in the performance of a raga) throughout the entire raga. This significance is due to the fact that, according to the Indians, this sound is Om. In other words, Om is the core of raga. Here is how T.E. Morozova writes about this: “The sacred Om, as an inexhaustible source (akṣara), was a symbolic key element in the development of Indian… music. It became the prototype of the ‘ever-sounding’ fundamental… tone… the strongest ‘point of attraction’… the ‘sound epicenter’… in the rāgās” [30, p. 59].

(10) This statement is confirmed by H.I. Khan. “When we pay attention to [the sounds of] nature”, Khan notes, “we find that every thing on earth contributes (to these sounds. – A.K.). Trees joyfully wave their branches in rhythm with the wind; the sound of the sea, the murmur of the breeze, the whistling of the wind in the rocks, among the hills and mountains... a thunderclap... [And] insects have their concerts... and bird choirs sing their hymns of praise in unison.… Indian music is based on the principle of raga, which makes it similar to nature (because. – A.K.) ragas (are part of. – A.K.) nature songs (italics are mine. – A.K.)” [15, pp. 100, 102].

(11) As E.V. Vasilchenko notes, in the East “music itself is something secondary to sound” [43, p. 11].

(12) The first mentions of angel-like singing in Russia are found in Metropolitan Hilarion's “The Word of Law and Grace” (11 century), in Kirill Turovsky's “The Word” (12 century), later in Joseph Volotsky's “Enlightener” of the 15th – 16th centuries and others.

(13) The basis of Russian chanting is the Russian folk song. We can say that Russian chanting was born from the Russian folk song [18, p. 63].

(14) Believers were deeply affected by his loss. There are many testimonies to this. Here is one. In the “Report on a Trip to Smolensk to See Metropolitan Simeon for ‘Great Spiritual Affairs’” by Ignatius, Archimandrite of the Novospassky Monastery, and Karion Istomin, a printer, poet, and educator, it is stated: “And the bishop said: ... ‘And which verses are added in the liturgy before the Cherubic Hymn, and after the kynonik, and they are sung for the sake of wasting time, because the verses are short, and after singing they stand idle, and people are bored standing without singing’” [32, p. 160].

(15) The composer’s desire to create works for the church was inspired by his conversations with St. Ignatius (Brianchaninov). The article “The Christian shepherd and the Christian-artist” [13] became a kind of monument to the communication between two great people.

(16) The liturgical music of these composers has been called the “New Direction of Russian Sacred Music”. The term was proposed by S.A. Rachinsky in his article “Folk Art and Rural School”, which dealt with the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom by P.I. Tchaikovsky (1878) [36, p. 357].

(17) Do these images of Ezekiel not evoke the mystery of the Russian spiritual poem “The Dove/Deep Book” (15th – 16th centuries)?

(18) Not everyone was pleased with this. I.A. Gardner expressed his negative opinion about this trend [6, p. 495].

(19) Yes, Russian music was born in the church. And, most likely, in the works of composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, who received the appropriate impetus from Mikhail Glinka. At the same time, it should be noted that since Glinka's time, composers who wrote music for the church have incorporated the vibrations and breath of this music into their secular compositions. This was done by Glinka, Musorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninov… Here, for example, is what V.V. Medushevsky writes about S.V. Rakhmaninov's “Vocalise”: “In the tender lament of repentant love... The vocalise... (on. – A.K.) the melodies' descents are answered by ascents, and in the coda, the broken lament is illuminated by a counterpoint that leads to the heavenly world, according to the promise (cf. Matthew 11:28)... Here... is the essential beginning of the music of the Orthodox civilization... The Heaven accompanies the soul, and the soul listens to the encouragement of the Heaven...” [28, pp. 352-353].

(20) This is the understanding of music that Russian thinkers and philosophers, starting with Nil Sorsky to N.O. Lossky, I.I. Lapshin, E.N. Trubetskoy, P.A. Florensky and others, have expressed in their works. See the article: [17]. Translated by: Klujev A. Russian philosophers about music: 1) Proceedings of the International Science Conference “Science. Education. Practice” (May 5, 2023). Delhi, 2023, pp. 40-46; 2) [El.] Ethicsacademy.co.in. 2023. 24.07; 3) [El.] Homo Universalis. 2025. 25.04; 4) [El.] Sindh Courier. 2025. 27.04; 5) [El.] Polis Magazino. 2025. 14.05.